History Courses

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  • HIST 25 / ENGL HIST-WWI () - view
    No description is available for this course.
  • HIST 56 / Environmental History (4) - view
    This course explores some of the major issues in the history of human interaction with and concern for the environment, from ancient times to today. We will examine changing notions of "nature" and "wilderness"; key moments in the history of human impact on the environment and in the history of ecology; and the origins and development of modern environmentalist movements. Alternate Years.

American History Courses

  • HIST 1 / History of the United States, From Contact to 1877 (4) - view
    A study of the development of the United States from first contact between Europeans and Native peoples through the Civil war and reconstruction. Covers such issues as the rationale for contact and conquest, the nature of colonial development, the American revolution, the transformation of the republic into a democracy, expansion to the Pacific, industrialization, the development and implications of slavery, and national collapse and reunion. Offered fall semester. Fulfills: BH DUS
  • HIST 2 / History of the United States, 1876-Present (4) - view
    A survey of the development of American society from Reconstruction to the present. Treats major events, such as the Great Depression, and explores significant themes, such as industrialization and world power. Offered spring semester.
  • HIST 15 / African-American History: African Origins to 1877 (4) - view
    An examination of the experiences that shaped African-American life from the period of the trans-Atlantic slave trade to the end of Reconstruction. Explores how Africans became African-Americans and how they reclaimed their culture, dignity, and humanity as individuals and as a community. Offered Annually.
  • HIST 16 / The Struggle for Equality: African-American History from 1860 to The Present (4) - view
    An examination of the African-American struggle for equality in American society from the Civil War to the present. Topics include the relationship among gender, race, and class; the relationship between African-American leaders and the masses; African-American culture; urban migrations; the evolution of African-American relationships with local, state, and federal government; and contemporary issues. Offered annually.
  • HIST 22 / American Environment History (2) - view
    This course explores some of the major issues in the history of human interaction with and concern for the environment, from ancient times to today. We will examine changing notions of "nature" and "wilderness"; key moments in the history of human impact on the environment and in the history of ecology; and the origins and development of modern environmentalist movements. Offered alternate years.
  • HIST 102 / Colonial America (4) - view
    The social, cultural, economic, and political changes that created a distinctive American society in British North America from first contact through 1760. Special attention to interactions between European, African, and Native Americans and the rise of distinctly American institutions and ideas. Enrollment priority: given to HIST majors and minors. Recommended: HIST 1 or 15. Offered fall semesters in odd numbered years.
  • HIST 104 / The American Revolution (4) - view
    The revolutionary conflict between the American colonies and the British Empire that produced an independent American nation, situating that conflict within dramatic social, cultural, and economic transformations in eastern North America in the late eighteenth century and addressing how contemporaries understood the nature and limits of revolutionary potential in the process of creating a new polity. Offered spring semester in odd-numbered years.
  • HIST 105 / The American Civil War (4) - view
    An examination of the breakdown of national consensus and compromise in 19th-century America and the growth of Southern and Northern identities and conflicts. Studies the nature of the slave system and its effects on Southern society and the industrial system and its effects on the North, as well as the Civil War itself, the battles and leaders, and its impact on the two "nations." Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 107 / Popular Culture and Its Critics (4) - view
    The intellectual history of American popular culture criticism examines different literatures about popular or "mass" culture and its supposed effects, its production, and its patterns of consumption, drawing on historical critiques in general along with recent analyses of particular genres. Prerequisite: Some lower division history.
  • HIST 108 / The History of Work in America (4) - view
    This course discusses fundamental shifts in the nature of work in America from the 17th through the 20th centuries, alongside the social, cultural and political changes that invested work with different meanings over time. Topics covered include the origins of a slave labor system, the impact of the industrial revolution on both men and women's work, the evolving relationship between workers and the state, the development and impact of an organized labor movement, as well as the "new economy" in postwar America. Recommended: Recommended HIST 1,2,15, or 16. Offered spring semester in odd-numbered years.
  • HIST 109 / The United States Since World War II (4) - view
    A study of the major changes in contemporary American society since 1945. Explores the effects of the Cold War, the modern consumer economy, and technology on the institutions and values of the American people. Offered annually.
  • HIST 110 / The United States and the World (4) - view
    This course will examine U.S. foreign relations and interaction with the wider world during the twentieth century. While necessarily proceeding chronologically, the course will also focus on key junctures and episodes. The course will examine the Untied States in the world with emphasis on such issues as the role of leaders as well as organizations, private and non-state actors, ideology, imperialism, revolution, and the political economy of war. The course will also examine the changing way sin which the world has judged American power, presence & influence over the years. Students will deal with these matters through secondary sources as well as primary sources of policymakers, activists, and intellectuals. Enrollment priority: Priority given to history majors and minors. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 115 / African-American Intellectual and Social History (4) - view
    A study of the intellectual arguments and social institutions that have empowered African-American leaders and the masses to maintain and assert their humanity within a world of oppression. Focuses on how gender, race, and class have created diverse ideas and opinions among African-Americans and the methods used by African-American intellectuals to analyze these ideas and opinions. Offered spring semester in alternate years. Same as: HISTG 170.
  • HIST 122 / Presidents and the Presidency in the United States, 1787-Present (4) - view
    A study of the origins and evolution of the American presidency. Focuses on those presidents (Washington, Jackson, Lincoln, F. D. Roosevelt) who had the greatest effect on the office and the slow accretion of changing precedents and policies over time. Offered fall semester in alternate years.
  • HIST 124 / A History of Business in America (4) - view
    A study of the role of business in American history, emphasizing the significance of the corporation and "big business. Focuses on the corporation between the Civil War and the First World War as the formative period in the development of modern business values, techniques, and institutions. Offered fall semester in alternate years.
  • HIST 126 / American Women's History (4) - view
    A survey of the social, economic, political, and intellectual history of women in America from the colonial period to the present, with a special emphasis on the 19th and 20th centuries. Considers the diversity of women's experience as a result of race, class, ethnicity, and geographic location. Emphasizes developing skills in the use of primary sources-written, artifactual, and oral. Topics vary annually. May be repeated for credit as topic changes. Offered fall semester.
  • HIST 181 / The United States and East Asia (4) - view
    This course examines relations between the United States and East Asia (to include China, Japan, and Southeast Asia) from the mid-19th century to the present. While necessarily proceeding chronologically, the course will focus on key junctures and episodes of this complex and evolving relationship. Topics and issues covered include international power and conflict, World Wars, imperialism, revolution, civil war, transnational movement(s), ideology, and cold war. Students will have an opportunity to examine secondary and primary materials and to ask historical questions as well as to draw independent conclusions. Enrollment priority: Priority given to history majors and minors. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 183 / The Vietnam War (4) - view
    This course focuses on United States involvement in Vietnam from World War II through the end of the Vietnam War. The course will examine such issues as imperialism, war, revolution, nation building, nationalism, insurgency, and terrorism. Through secondary readings, film, and documents, students will explore the diplomatic, economic, social, and political aspects of this decades-long conflict, and ask historical questions as well as to draw independent conclusions. Enrollment priority: Priority given to history majors and minors. Offering to be determined.

European History Courses

  • HIST 7 / European History 1492-1789: Reformation, Enlightenment, and Revolution (4) - view
    A survey of European history from Columbus to Napoleon. Emphasizes broad themes, such as European exploration, the rise of absolute monarchy, the triumph of parliamentary government in England, the culture of the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution. Offered fall semester. Fulfills: BH
  • HIST 8 / European History 1789-1989: Nationalism, Totalitarianism, and Rebirth (4) - view
    A survey of European history from the Congress of Vienna to the collapse of Communism. Emphasizes such topics as German and Italian unification, imperialism, the phenomenon of total war, the Bolshevik revolution, Fascism, the Cold War and European revival after 1945, and the collapse of Communism. Offered spring semester.
  • HIST 21 / The Ancient World: Rome (4) - view
    An introduction to Roman history, covering the rise of Rome, Roman imperialism, social stresses, the transition from Republic to Empire, imperial civilization, the rise of Christianity, and the decline of the Roman Empire. Offering varies. Same as: CL 21.
  • HIST 30 / Medieval Europe (4) - view
    A study of the development of European civilization from the decline of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance. Emphasizes political development from the Germanic monarchies to the emergence of dynastic states, feudalism, Christian philosophy, and the development of the church, including economic, social, and cultural trends. Alternate Years. Fulfills: BH
  • HIST 39 / History of England to 1714 (4) - view
    A survey of English history from the Roman invasion to Queen Anne. Traces the development of feudalism, the monarchy, parliament, religious conflict, and the pre-industrial economy. Describes the historical background to early English literature. Offered spring semester in alternate years.
  • HIST 41 / History of Britain since 1715 (4) - view
    Traces the rise and decline of British power in modern times. Covers the French wars, the American War of Independence (from the British perspective), the Industrial Revolution, imperialism, Darwinism, the rise and fall of Victorianism, the world wars, the welfare state, immigration, and integration with Europe. The course emphasizes literary and cultural history and provides essential background for students of English literature. Offered spring semester in alternate years.
  • HIST 45 / Modern French History (4) - view
    Major themes and events in French history, starting with the "Age of Absolutism" and the reign of the Bourbons and ending with contemporary French society. The French revolution and its enduring impact on French politics and culture will have a central place in the course, as will France's status as a world power in the 19th and 20th centuries. Offered in alternate years.
  • HIST 47 / Modern German History (4) - view
    The politics and culture of Germany in the modern era. Themes include the development of national identity, the emergence of Germany as a nation-state, the failure of the Weimar Republic, the rise to power and rule of the Nazis, postwar division of Germany, and reunification. Offered in alternate years.
  • HIST 50 / History of Imperial Russia (4) - view
    The Russian Empire from the reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725) through the fall of the Romanov dynasty in the February Revolution. Recurring themes include the strengths and weaknesses of autocracy as a political system; the role of serfdom in Russia's development and underdevelopment; the polarization of Russian elite society into revolutionaries and conservatives; the role of the cities and urban populations in Russian culture, politics, and the economy; Russia's complex relationship with the West; and the formation of Russia as a multinational empire. Offering to be determined. Fulfills: BH
  • HIST 51 / History of the USSR (4) - view
    The course begins with the developments leading to the 1917 Russian Revolution-which has been called the greatest event of the twentieth century. It then traces the tumultuous development of Soviet and Russian history up to the present. Emphases include: the social origins of the Russian Revolution; how a great revolution made in the name of social democracy gave rise to one-party rule; and how this set in motion a chain of events which placed the Soviet Union on a new path of historical development leading eventually to its own demise in 1991 and the ensuing recasting of politics and society. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 131 / Early Modern Europe (4) - view
    The political, cultural, and spiritual life of Europe as it made the transition to the modern era. Topics will be organized around a series of tensions: the religious versus the secular; science versus superstition; elite versus folk culture; centralized versus local authority, and reason versus faith. Resources include works of social and cultural history as well as the literature of the era and scholarly commentary on it. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 135 / Women in Modern European History (4) - view
    A topical survey of the social, economic, and political history of women in Europe from the 15th century to the present, emphasizing work, family, religion, sexuality, feminism, politics, and the state. Examines geographical and cultural variations in women's roles in history. The focus of the course varies annually and may include such topics as class and gender, work and family, women and politics, institutions and power, or rural and urban experiences. May be repeated for credit as topic changes. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 136 / Foundations of the European Intellectual Tradition (4) - view
    A survey of Western thought from the earliest Greek thinkers through the Renaissance, with emphasis upon the rise of a spirit of free inquiry, the growth of humanism and secularism, and debates between science and religion; tradition and innovation. Considered in their social contexts are the Presocratics, the sophists, Plato and Aristotle, Hellenistic schools, Lucretius and Cicero, early Christians, and representatives of medieval scholasticism and Renaissance humanism. For continuation, see HIST 137. Offered spring semester in odd-numbered years. Same as: CL 136.
  • HIST 137 / Modern European Intellectual History (4) - view
    A survey of European thought from the Renaissance to the 20th century, focusing on the great seminal philosophers, scientists, economists, and political theorists. Explores the intellectual movements that have shaped modern consciousness, including the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, liberalism, conservatism, Marxism, Darwinism, psychoanalysis, and existentialism. Offered annually.
  • HIST 138 / Germany, Nazism, and the Holocaust (4) - view
    This course moves from early German national history, through World War One and the crises of Weimar, in an effort to understand the ascent of Nazism as an ideology and political movement, as well as Hitler's rise to power. Focus then turns to Germany's great crimes; war, conquest, and, especially, the Holocaust. Major themes include: traditions of authoritarianism; the nature and mobilization of German anti-Semitism; and the causes, course, and character of the Holocaust, examined through the experiences of its victims and perpetrators. Offered in alternate years.
  • HIST 145 / Studies in French History (4) - view
    An in-depth study of some aspects of French history, with topics varying. Topics could include the revolutionary tradition in France, 1789-1968; or French politics, culture, and society, 1945 to the present. Course may be repeated. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 153 / Europe, 1914-1945: The World Wars and the Great Dictators (4) - view
    A study of world war and with great dictators in 20th-century Europe. Focuses on the failures of interwar diplomacy and the rise of totalitarianism in the Soviet Union, Italy, Spain, and Germany. Devotes special attention to the Russian revolution, Stalin's terror, the Nazi Holocaust, and the peace settlement of 1945. Offered spring semester.
  • HIST 154 / Post-1945 Europe (4) - view
    A regional approach to postwar history, examining the tensions, triumphs, and traumas of the European experience. Major topics include the division of Europe into the communist and capitalist "camps," and the memory of the war experience, the influence of and resistance to America and "Americanism," the turmoil of the 1960s protest, terrorism in Italy and Germany, the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, and European integration. Readings from history, literature, and primary sources. Offered in alternate years.
  • HIST 156 / Studies in Russian History (4) - view
    An in-depth study of a historical theme or topic in Russian history. Topics vary annually and include 19th-century Russian political thought, Russia in Revolution 1905-1939, Medieval Russia, Soviet history, and the Stalin Revolution. May be repeated for credit as topic changes. Offering to be determined.

Global History Courses

  • HIST 3 / Contemporary Issues in World History (4) - view
    An introduction to historical thinking via contemporary issues. Each semester a set of issues is selected for investigation in detail. Issues might include ecological problems, racism, modernization, democracy, fundamentalism, totalitarianism, feminism, revolution, the welfare state, sexuality, and multiculturalism. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 13 / Jewish History from Roman Times to the Enlightenment (4) - view
    An overview of the remarkable history of the Jewish people in post-biblical times, beginning with the Roman occupation of Palestine and concluding with the impact of the Enlightenment on Jewish identity. Among the topics to be studied are the Roman exile of the Jews, the religious traditions and national hopes that accompanied them in the diaspora, the emergence of European and Oriental Jewries, the martyrdom of Jews during the Crusades, the Jewish Golden Age in medieval Spain, the Spanish Inquisition, the European Jewish enlightenment. Offered fall semester in odd-numbered years. Same as: JWST 13.
  • HIST 14 / Global History (4) - view
    Focused on exploration of a selected global issue, featuring examination of the historical origins, development, and contemporary manifestation of the selected issue. Topics to be offered include: Terrorism as a species of political violence; Globalisation of world markets; political hegemonies and culture; Utopian imagination. Offered to be determined.
  • HIST 20 / The Ancient World: Greece (4) - view
    An introduction to the history of Greece from the Bronze Age to Alexander the Great, including its artistic, social, economic, religious, military, and political developments, and the evolution of the basic concepts that have influenced Western thought. Special attention is given to original sources, with readings from the Greek historians and consideration of archaeology. Offered fall semester in even-numbered years. Same as: CL 20.
  • HIST 61 / Modern Sub-Saharan Africa (4) - view
    A survey of Sub-Saharan African history from the 19th century to the present. Stresses pre-colonial African society, European imperialism, the revolt against imperial domination, post-colonial Africa, and contemporary issues. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 65 / History of the Islamic Middle East, 600-1800 (4) - view
    A broad survey of the history of the Middle East from the rise of Islam in the early seventh century C.E. to the 19th century. Emphasizes major transformations in the region's history during this period, including the mission of Muhammad, the early Islamic conquests, the formation of classical Islamic culture and society, the demise of the universal empire and the rise of regional states in the 10th century, the impact of the Crusades and the Mongol invasions, and the reconsolidation of political and social order under Ottoman and Safavid rule. Offered spring semester. Fulfills: BH DIT
  • HIST 66 / History of the Modern Middle East (4) - view
    A survey of Middle East history in the 19th and 20th centuries. Topics include the decline of Ottoman power and the Tanzimat reforms, the Eastern Question and European rivalry in the Mediterranean, the rise of nationalism in the region, the impact of the First and Second World Wars, the establishment of the state of Israel, the struggle for independence in the Arab world, the Arab-Israeli conflict, superpower rivalry in the Middle East during the Cold War, and the conflict between pan-Islamic forces and secular responses to the crisis of modernity. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 70 / Modern Jewish History (4) - view
    A study of the social and cultural experiences of Jews and Jewish communities from the Enlightenment to the present. Explores the diversity of Jewish experience in Western Europe, Russia, America, the Arab lands, and Israel, beginning with a survey of the major developments in European and American history that have shaped Jewish identities. Offered fall semester in odd-numbered years. Fulfills: BH DIT
  • HIST 75 / Latin America Since Independence (4) - view
    A study of the revolt against imperial rule, the problems of independence, and the impact of revolution upon Latin American politics and society in the 20th century, beginning with a broad overview of the impact of Iberian and Indian civilization upon Latin America. Discusses Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Mexico in greater detail than the rest of Latin America. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 80 / History of Asia: Asian Traditions (4) - view
    A study of Asia prior to 1850 focusing on the development of political, economic, social, and cultural institutions. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 180 / Modern Chinese History (4) - view
    A study of the history of China from the 17th century to the present. Examines the social, cultural, and intellectual heritage of Chinese and Manchu institutions, China's reaction to foreign challenges, the fall of the Qing dynasty, and the rebuilding of political, social, and economic structures during the 20th century. Offering to be determined.

History of Science, Medicine and Technology

  • HIST 57 / History of Physics in the 20th Century (4) - view
    Origins of relativity and quantum mechanics. Contributions of Planck, Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrödinger and Dirac. Development of atomic, nuclear, and particle physics. Current views of cosmology and unified theories. Topics include conceptual problems in quantum mechanics, nuclear energy and weapons, the nature of physical reality, physics and society, physics as an intellectual pursuit. Offered spring semester in even-numbered years.
  • HIST 58 / History of Biology in the 20th Century (4) - view
    History of the major developments in genetics, evolution/ecology, biochemistry/molecular biology, and immunology in the 20th century. Social, cultural, and political contexts of advances in the life sciences. Topics include biology as big science, biology and the shaping of modern medicine, biology and environmentalism, and human evolution and society. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 59 / Darwin and Darwinism: The History of Evolutionary Biology (4) - view
    A study of the historical development of evolutionary biology. The course centers on the science and scientific creativity of Charles Darwin. The development of evolutionary thought to the present is examined as well as the social, political, and cultural contexts of Darwinism. Offered spring semester in even-numbered years.
  • HIST 60 / History of Science (4) - view
    A study of key issues in the history of major scientific concepts. Emphasizes an understanding of how scientific knowledge grows, the nature of creativity in science, the influence of science in shaping modern society, scientific progress and its problems. Studies foundations of the scientific revolution and emphasizes the historical development of central theories in modern biology, chemistry, and physics. Offered spring semester in odd-numbered years.
  • HIST 171 / History of Sexuality (4) - view
    This research seminar explores some of the major themes and milestones in the modern history of sexuality in the United States and Europe, focusing special attention on the role of medicine in these developments. Following a theoretical introduction to the field, the seminar will address, among other topics, the "invention" of homosexuality and the regulation of prostitution; the impact of thinkers like Krafft-Ebbing, Freud, and Kinsey; and such recent controversies as the new diagnosis of sex addiction and the search for a gay gene. Special emphasis will be placed on evaluating the role of class, race, gender, and ethnicity upon constructions of sexuality. In addition to a substantial research paper, students will be required to write three shorter response papers and deliver class presentations based upon their readings. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 172 / Disease in History (4) - view
    Examines medicine and disease in western history, with an emphasis on the 19th and 20th centuries. It seeks to provide students with the historical knowledge necessary for understanding contemporary responses to disease. In addition to studying the development of specific medical ideas and techniques, a primary focus will be on investigating medicine as a complex social and cultural phenomenon. Offered spring semester in odd-numbered years.

Other History Courses

  • HIST 94 / Historical Research Methods (4) - view
    Introduction to the research methods historians use to gather information and interpret historical processes. Practical experience in exploring a variety of primary sources including oral history and historical archives. Introduction to historical reading and reasoning. Offered annually.
  • HIST 190 / Selected Topics in History (1-4) - view
    A study of a historical theme or topic that uses a methodological approach or viewpoint not fully explored within the departmental offerings. Topics vary according to student interest and faculty expertise. Amount of credit established at time of registration. May be repeated for credit as topic changes. Offering to be determined.
  • HIST 194 / History Research Seminar (4) - view
    Students concentrate on writing a major research paper on a topic of their choice, under the direction of the seminar instructor, but with the advice of members of the department who possess expertise in the area of a student's interest. Oral presentations and discussion of projects are required. May be repeated for credit. Signature of instructor required for registration. Prerequisite: HIST 94. Offered spring semester.
  • HIST 196 / Independent Study (1-4) - view
    A tutorial course stressing independent investigation of a topic selected in conference with the instructor and approved by the department. Admission by petition to or by invitation from the department. Amount of credit established at time of registration. May be repeated for credit. Signature of instructor required for registration.

Off-Campus Programs: Drew London Semester

  • HIST 143 / The History of Modern Britain (4) - view
    A study of the historical and practical forces that have shaped today's Britain, with primary emphasis on the 19th and 20th centuries. The course focuses on various themes-the evolution and role of the monarchy, the emergence of the welfare state, the rise and fall of the Empire, the relationships between Britain and America, as well as Britain and Europe. Offered fall semester. Same as: PSCI 189.
  • HIST 176 / Contemporary British Politics (4) - view
    A discussion and an analysis of current issues in British politics with an emphasis on the impact these issues have on the functioning and development of the British political system. Explores such topics as the roles of Parliament, cabinet government, the prime minister, political parties, and interest groups. Outside speakers who are active politicians and field trips to political institutions and events are an integral part of this course. Required of all students and offered in the London program. Offered fall semester. Same as: PSCI 176.
  • HIST 198 / Research Tutorial on British History (4) - view
    Each student conducts research and writes a paper on a topic approved by the London program instructor. The project stresses normal library research as well as personal interviews and other out-of-class experiences as part of the research process. Students are urged to consult with their home campus adviser about their topic before going to London. This seminar cannot be substituted for HIST 294/History Research Seminar in fulfilling requirements for the history major. To qualify for credit in history, the research done in London must be on a historical topic. This seminar cannot be substituted for HIST 194/History Research Seminar in fulfilling requirements for the history major. Signature of instructor required for registration. Offered fall semester. Same as: PSCI 182.

Off-Campus Programs: The European Semester

  • EURST 100 / Colloquium Research Seminar on European Society (4) - view
    Taught by the resident director, a Drew faculty member, this course introduces students to some of the cultural, social, and political institutions that define contemporary Europe through speakers and trips to museums, historic sites, the headquarters of the European Union, and NATO. As a research seminar, this course provides a forum in which students examine one aspect of contemporary Europe in depth. The results of students' research are presented in a final paper at the end of the semester. Offered fall semester.
  • HIST 168 / Brussels: A European Mosaic (4) - view
    Brussels offers a rich and diverse cultural mosaic. It is the historic center not only of Belgium's French and Flemish communities but also of the nation's imperial past. As the capital city of today's European Union, Brussels has a wider cultural influence from other EU member states added to its already-rich heritage. Through selected themes or topics, this course studies the history and/or society of Brussels and its developing European mosaic. Corequisite: SOC 168. Offered fall semester.
  • HIST 185 / European Research Seminar (4) - view
    Each student designs and conducts an independent research project on a topic selected in consultation with the Resident Director of the European Semester and approved by the appropriate departmental liaison. The project will stress library research, as well as personal interviews, and may include trips to appropriate EU member states. (Students may also register as an independent study in any approved major)